When you took a period of section when a fall of a Han Dynasty, the term Zhongguo was subjected to transformation following of a surge of peregrine peoples from either the northern frontier. This was doubly therefore when a loss of a Yellow Flow of any stream vale, a cradle of Chinese civilization, to these peoples. E.g., a Xianbei known as their Northern Wei regime Zhongguo, contrasting it with a Southern Dynasties, which they known as a Yi (夷), meaning "barbarian". A southern dynasties, for their a share, recently exiled from either a northward, known as a Northern Wei Lu (虏), meaning "criminal" or even "prisoner". In that way Zhongguo come to represent political legitimacy. It was utilized therein manner from either a tenth century onward per competing dynasties of Liao, Jin and Song. A term Zhongguo come to become related to geographic, ethnical & political identity & less to ethnic origin.

A Republic of China when it controlled mainl& China, and late, a Population's Republic of China, own utilized Zhongguo to mean all the territories & peoples inside their political control (population in the Republic of China currently unremarkably utilizes Zhongguo to refer to the PRC & Taiwan to refer to itself). So these come asserted that 100% 56 officially recognized ethnic groups are Zhongguo ren (中國人), or even Zhongguo humans. Their disparate histories come put together a history of Zhongguo.

"China"
English and many more languages have forms of the title China (& a prefix Sino-), which is believed to have from either a title of the Qin dynasty that first unified a united states.[http://www.bartleby.com/61/80/C0298000.html] Despite a fact that a Qinside dynasty was short-fugacious & was typically think of too tyrannic it unified a written language in China & gave a supreme ruler of China a title of "Emperor", hence, a subsequent Silk Road dealer would identify themselves by that title. There are likewise more minor guide theories on the origin of the word.

In any circumstance, a word China passed across numerous languages along a Silk Road before it finally reached Europe & England. A American "China", transliterated to Shina (支那) has also been utilized by Japanese since the nineteenth century, & has since evolved into the disparaging term therein language.

A term "China" potty narrowly mean China proper, or, typically, China proper & Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang, a combination basically conterminous by having a Twentieth & 21st century political unit China; a boundaries between these regions don't necessarily watch provincial boundaries. Inside numerous contexts, "China" is usually wont to refer to the Population's Republic of China or even mainland China, when "Taiwan" is utilized to refer to the Republic of China. Informally, inside economic or business contexts, "the Greater China region" (大中華地區) refers to Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan.

Sinologists usually use "Chinese" in the further restricted feel, extra akin to the definitive usage of Zhongguo, or even to the meaning of the "Han ethnic group", world health organization produce higher a bulk of Mainland China.

Inside numerous contexts it can be additional appropriate to speak of "mainland China" (中國大陸,zhōngguó dàlù in Mandarin), especially whilst contrasting it using more, politically different regions such as Hong Kong, Macau, and territories administered per Republic of China (Taiwan).

History
''Independent articles: History of China, History of the Republic of China (1912-1949; 1949-Present on Taiwan), History of People's Republic of China (1949-Present)''

China was one of a earliest centers of human being civilization. A Chinese language was also one of a couple of languages to invent writing independently, a more languages existence that of ancient Mesopotamia (Sumerians), India (Indus Valley Civilization), the Mayans, and Egypt.

A 1st dynasty according to Chinese historical sources was the Xia dynasty; however no archeological grounds to believe definitively attesting the Xia dynasty (although a select few neolithic web sites keep close at hand been suggested to exist as such). A 1st confirmed dynasty is the Shang, who settled along a Huang He river, dating from a 18th to the Twelfth centuries BC. A Shang were successively invaded per Zhou (12th to Fifth centuries BC), whose centralised authority was slowly eroded per cession of state-such as authority to warlords ruling little states; at length, in the Spring and Autumn period, many hard independent states, inside continuous war, paid however nominal deference to the Zhou state as the Imperial centre. It were a lot unified under 1 emperor in 221 BC by Qin Shi Huang, ushering in the Qin Dynasty, the number one unified focused Chinese state.

When a fall of authoritarian Qinside Dynasty in 207 BC come a Han Dynasty which lasted until 220 AD. The period of disunion followed over again. Within 580, China was reunited under a Sui. Under a future Tang and Song dynasties, China reached its golden age. For an extended period, especially between a Seventh & Fourteenth centuries, China was one of a virtually all advanced civilizations inside the world in technology, literature, & art. A Sung fell to the invasive Mongols in 1279. A Mongols, under Kublai Khan, established the Yuan Dynasty. The peasant known as Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew a Mongols within 1368 & founded the Ming Dynasty, which lasted until 1644. Fallowing a Ming dynasty, come a Qing (Manchu) dynasty, which lasted until the overthrow of Puyi in 1911.

Typically days regime vary was violent & strongly opposed & a ruler class required to require favorite measures to assure their rule & a loyalty of the overthrown dynasty. E.g., fallowing a foreign Qing (Manchus) conquered China, because they were ever suspicious of the Han Chinese, a Qing rulers put into result measures aimed at preventing a absorption of the Manchus into the dominant Han Chinese people. Notwithstanding, these restrictions proved ineffectual against a assimilation of Manchus into a Chinese identity & culture.

In a 18th century, Chinthe achieved a decisive technical benefit on top the peoples of Central Asia, which it had been at war using for many decades, when at the same time falling behind Europe there. This placed the stage for the 19th century, where China adopted a defensive posture against European imperialism while itself engaging in imperialist expansion into Central Asia. Understand Imperialism in Asia.

Nevertheless a primary stimulator of a decline of the Chinese empire wwhen non European & U.s. interference, as the ethnocentric Western historians would lead numbers of to think. Contrarily it was the series of internal upheavals. Virtually all large one was a Taiping Civil War which lasted from 1851 to 1862. a civil war was began by an ultra believer within a school of thought part influenced by Christianity world health organization believed himself to exist as the boy of God and the immature brother of Jesus. Although a regal forces were yet victorious, a civil war was one of a bloodiest around mortal history - costing at least twenty million populates (to a higher degree a sum total of fatalities in the First World War). Before this conflict the total of Islamic Rebellions, especially within Central Asia, got occurred. Late, another major rebellion took place, although this latter insurrection was substantially little than a cataclysmal Taiping Civil War. This 2nd conflict was a Boxer Rebellion which aimed to repel Westerners. Although secretly supporting a rebels, a Empress, Ci Xi, aided foreign forces in suppressing a rebellion.

Within 1912, after a prolonged period of decline, the institution of the Emperor of China disappeared and a Republic of China was established. a as a result terzetto decades were a period of disunion — a Warlord Era, the Sino-Japanese War, and a Chinese Civil War. A latter terminated around 1949 by owning a Communist Party of China in control of mainland China. the CPC established a communist state—the People's Republic of China—that claim to become a successor state of the Republic of China. Meanwhile, a disorganised & possibly corrupt Divergence government of the Kuomintang fled to Taiwan, where it continued to become recognized when a legitimate government of 100% China per Western bloc and the United Nations until the 1970s, when virtually all nations & a UN switched recognition to the PRC.

A United Kingdom and Portugal transferred their colonies of Hong Kong and Macau on the southern Chinese coast to the PRC in 1997 and 1999, respectively. China utilized around the modern context typically refers to just the territory of the PRC, or even to "Mainland China" (the territory of the PRC excluding Hong Kong & Macau).

A PRC doesn't recognize a Divergence, when it claims to keep around succeeded a ROC when the legitimate governing authority of 100% of China including Taiwan. Then again, a ROC—while never formally surrendering its claim to exist when a legitimate authority on top tons of China—has moved out of this previous identity representing its rule across completely of China, & progressively identifies itself as Taiwan. A PRC has historically resisted a Divergence's identification of itself when Taiwan, especially inside weak of the movement supported by residents of Taiwan & others world health organization advocate Taiwan's identity as an independent political entity. Important disputes persist when to the nature and extent of China, conceivable Chinese reunification and the political status of Taiwan.

Watch as well: Timeline of Chinese history Dynasties in Chinese history History of Hong Kong History of Macau History of Taiwan

Political history

''Independent articles: Politics of Imperial China, Politics of the People's Republic of China, Politics of Taiwan, Political status of Taiwan.''

Prior to unification per Qin Dynasty in 221 BC, "China" did not survive as a consistent respire. the Chinese civilization consisted of the patchwork of many states, every ruled by a king (王), duke (公), marquess (侯), or earl (伯). Although there was the central king world health organization held nominal power, & mighty hegemons sometimes held considerable influence, from each one state was ruled as an independent political entity.

This ended by having a Qin Dynasty unification, when you took which a professional of the emperor was set up, & the patterns of bureaucratic administration established. Fallowing a Qin, China had astir Xiii other dynasties, numerous of which continued a extensive models of kingdoms, dukedoms, earldoms, and marquisates. A territory varied by owning many expansions & contractions based on the nature & severity of every emperor and dynasty. But a emperor had ultimate, supreme, & unquestionable authority when a political and religious leader of China. A emperor besides consulted civil & martial ministers, especially a prime minister. Political power periodically fell into a mitts of mighty officials, eunuchs, or purple relatives, often at the expense of a infant heriditary emperor. This happened especially since a emperor typically was several shells of power flushed from either a outside globe, making him susceptible to manipulation.

Political relations by using dependencies (tributary kingdoms) were maintained by international marriages, military aids, pact, & gifts. (watch segment "Geography, Political" in the image below for instance),

Luoyang, Chang'an (today's Xi'an), Nanjing, and Beijing are the four cities most commonly designated as capitals of China over the course of history. Chinese was a official language, though periods of Mongol & Manchu conquest saw the arrival of Mongol and Manchu as alternate official languages.

In January 1, 1912, a Republic of China (Divergence) was established, signaling the prevent of the Manchu-dominated Qing Empire. Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (KMT or Nationalist Person), was announced probationary president of the republic. Still, Yuan Shikai, the previous Qing general world health organization experienced defected to a radical induce, before long forced Sun to step aside & took the presidency for himself (formally it was a negotiation in which Sun agreed to step aside for what was so perceived as a heavy reformer, Yuan). shortly, Yuan attempted to use himself proclaimed emperor of the fresh dynasty; everthing the same, he died soon of natural induces prior to fully ingesting power above all of the Chinese empire.

When Yuan's downfall, Chinthe was politically split, by having an internationally-recognized, however virtually powerless, national government sitting within Beijing (so failing to healthy a definition of a state). Warlords within various regions exercised actual control above their several territories.

In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify a united states under its have control, moving a united states's capital to Nanjing & implementing "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined inside Sun Yat-sen's program for transforming Chinthe into a modern, popular state. Profits, political tutelage intended a single-person rule per Kuomintang by owning heavily Leninist influences. Ironically, two a Kuomintang & a CCP keep around heavily Leninist influences. Inside 1947, constitutional rule was established, however because of the on-going Chinese Civil War between a Kuomintang & the Communist Person of China (CPC), several provisions of the 1947 Divergence constitution were never put into actual practise on the mainland.

By early 1950, a CPC experienced defeated a Kuomintang on a mainl&, and the Divergence government retreated to the island of Taiwan. Beginning in the late 1970s, Taiwan began the implementation of fully, multi-person, representative democracy in the territories still under Divergence control (i personally.e., Taiwan Province, Taipei, Kaohsiung and some offshore islands of Fujian province). Now, a political scene in the Divergence is vibrant, sustaining active participation by 100% sectors of society. However like than a common conservative-liberal policy distinctions that are a hallmarks of virtually all democracies within a world, the independent cleavage in Divergence politics is the unification sustaining China in the long-begin vs. formal independence issue. Nevertheless, Greens come usually supplementary liberal (i personally.e. other environmentally friendly) and Blues come typically esteem additional conservativist.

Meanwhile, Mao Zedong, a leader of the communists, proclaimed the People's Republic of China (PRC) on October 1, 1949 in Beijing. From either the beginning, a PRC has been a dictatorial one-party state under the Communist Person. Yet, post-1978 reforms keep around led to the relaxation, around variable degrees, of person control above numerous areas of society. Yet, a Communist Person however has absolute control above political aspects of society, & it day and night tries to eradicate threats to its rule. Examples of this include a jailing of political opponents & journalists, general control of the click, regulation of religions & more non-person organizations, censorship of the press, literature & film, & suppression of independence/secessionist movements. Within 1989, a popular demonstration held around Beijing at Tiananmen Square was violently put to an end per Chinese government. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiananmen_Square_protests_of_1989 The attempted eradication of the Falun Gong movement is also held by its supporters to exist as motivated by fear of Falun Gong's growing influence. Now, nevertheless, there exists good deal supplementary freedom inside rational thought around non-political areas & propaganda, while however continuing, has lessened.

Understand likewise: Chinese nationalism Propaganda in the People's Republic of China Imperialism in Asia Chinese sovereign Chinese law

Territory
Historical overview
A Zhou Dynasty, which preceded the unification of China by Shi Huangdi, was originally a region about the Yellow River. Since so, a territory has expanded outbound altogether directions, & was big in a period of the Tang, Yuan, and Qing dynasties. A Qing Dynasty involved area of modern Russian Far East and Central Asia (west of Xinjiang).

Along using provincial administrators, a select few foreign monarchs sent envoys to offer gifts to a Emperor of China and the Emperor returned compliments to them. A Chinese thought that a barbarians bonded themselves to the virtue of a Emperor, while the foreign governments every now and again disagreed. Since a prevent of the 19th century, China hwhen tried to reinterpret this relationship as suzerainty or suzerainty-dependency, but this there are no yearn has any rattling conception inside modern international political orientation.

A Qing Empire reduced the territorial value of the Great Wall of China as a barrier of China proper after they merged their mother country (Manchuria) north of the wall using China proper south of it. Around 1683 fallowing a surrender of the Kingdom of Tungning established by Koxinga, Taiwan including the Pescadores became a section of the Qing Empire, originally when 1 prefecture, then deuce, & late the province. Taiwan was afterward ceded to Japan after the first Sino-Japanese War in 1895. At a prevent of the second Sino-Japanese War in 1945, Japan relinquished the sovereignty of the island in the San Francisco Peace Treaty, and a Republic of China took over. Since so, a de jure sovereignty of Taiwan has been under dispute between a PRC, & the nowadays popular Divergence & Taiwan independence supporters.

Look at: Taiwan, Republic of China, Tibet

Historical political divisions
Top-level political divisions of China use altered when a administration changed. Top levels involved circuits and provinces. Following that, there stand been prefectures, subprefectures, departments, commanderies, districts, and counties. Recent divisions besides include prefecture-level cities, county-level cities, towns and townships (see in the image below e.g.).

Historically, virtually all Chinese dynasties were depending in the historical heartlands of China, known per politically-right term of China proper. Various dynasties as well exhibited expansionism by engaging in incursions into supplementary peripheral device territories rather Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, Xinjiang, and Tibet. A Manchu-established Qing Dynasty and its successors, the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China cemented the incorporation of these territories into China. These territories come separated by borders that come undefined at the best, & don't correspond swell to contemporary political divisions. China proper is typically thought to exist as bounded per Great Wall and the edge of the Tibetan plateau; Manchuria and Inner Mongolia are found north of the Great Wall of China, and a boundary between a two could either become taken when the present border between Inner Mongolia and the northeast Chinese provinces, or a extra historic border of the World War II-era puppet state of Manchukuo; Xinjiang's borders correspond to today's administrative Xinjiang; and historic Tibet is conceived as occupying tons of the Tibetan Plateau. China is likewise traditionally thought of when comprising North China (北方) and South China (南方), the geographic boundary between which northward & south is largely generalized when Huai River (淮河) and Qinling Mountains (秦岭).

Look at as well: Political divisions of China History of the political divisions of China

Geography and climate
Independent article: Geography of China

Chinthe is composed of a huge kind of extremely different landscapes, with mostly plateaus and mountains in the west, and moo lands on the east. Following, chief rivers flow from west to east, including a Yangtze (central), a Huang He (central-east), and a Amur (northeast), and periodically toward a south (including a Pearl River, Mekong River, and Brahmaputra), with virtually all Chinese streams, lakes, and wells throughout emptying into a Pacific.

Virtually all of China's cultivable lands lie along them major lakes, a Yangtze & a Huang He, & every come a centers in the area of which are then founded China's major ancient civilizations.

In a east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea are found extensive & densely populated alluvial plains; the shore of the South China Sea is more mountainous & southern China is dominated by hill country and lower mountain ranges.

To a west, the n has a great alluvial plain, and the south has a brobdingnagian calcareous tableland traversed by hill ranges of moderate elevation, with a Himalayas, containing the greatest point Mount Everest. A northwest besides has high tableland among other arid desert landscapes such as a Takla-Makan and the Gobi Desert, which has been expanding. Due to the prolonged drought and perhaps unfortunate agrarian practices, dust storms have become common within the spring in China. Dust blows all the way to southern China, Taiwan, & has possibly been measured on the West Coast of the United States.

The Giant Panda is an endangered species native to the bamboo forests of central and southern China.

When you took several dynasties, a southwestern border of China has been a high mountains and deep vale of Yunnan, which separate modern China from Burma, Laos and Vietnam.

A climate of China varies greatly. A northern zone (inside which lies Beijing) has a climate by using winters of Arctic severity. A central zone (in which Shanghai is situated) has the typically temperate climate. A southern zone (inside which lies Guangzhou) has a usually subtropical climate.

A Palaeozoic formations of China, excepting only a upper section of the Carboniferous system, are marine, while a Mesozoic and Tertiary deposits are estuarine and freshwater or else of terrestrial origin. Groups of volcanic cones occur in the Great Plain of northward China. In the Liaodong and Shandong Peninsulas, there are basaltic plateaux.

Demographics
Independent articles: ethnic groups in Chinese history, nationalities of China

Above the hundred ethnic groups have existed in China. Inside terms of amounts, but, a pre-leading ethnic class action around China is the Han, which is a class action then diverse around its culture & language that a few envisage it as a big overarching class action bringing together several little, distinct ethnic groups sharing most common traits around language & culture. Throughout history, several ethnic groups use been assimilated into neighboring ethnicities or even disappeared forswearing the trace. Many antecedently distinct ethnic groups keep close at hand been Sinicized into the Han, causing its people to increase dramatically; at a equivalent period, numerous inside a Han identity keep close at h& maintained distinct linguistic and ethnical traditions, though however distinguishing when Han. Numerous days it used to be that millenia numerous foreign groups keep close at h&, successively, shaped Han language and culture, for instance a queue occurs as pig derriere hair style strictly enforced per Manchurians on the Han world. A term Zhonghua Minzu is sometimes wont to describe the notion of the "Chinese nationality" transcending ethnic divisions.

The food and drug administration of the People's Republic of China now officially recognizes a total of 56 ethnic groups, of which the largest is the Han Chinese. China's overall people is Unity.Three billion. Sustaining a spherical man people presently figured at astir Captain hicks.Four billion, China is house to just about 20%, or even of these-fifth part of the human being species, homo sapiens.

A deficiency of birth prevention & promotion of people incubation when you took a rule of Mao Zedong resulted inside the demographic explosion, culminating in ended Single.Three billion humans now. As the response to the problems this is inducing, the food and drug administration of the PRC has enacted a birth control policy, commonly called a One-child policy.

A Han speak many reciprocally opaque tongues, classified by modern linguists when existence separate languages, however regarded in a Chinese languages when "dialects" or even "area languages" inside one Chinese language. the various spoken varieties of Chinese part a park written standard, "Vernacular Chinese" or "baihua", which has been used since a early 20th Century & is according to Standard Mandarin, the standard spoken language, within grammar & vocabulary. Additionally, a second, additional ancient written standard, Classical Chinese, was used for writing Chinese per literati for hundreds to thousands of years prior to a 20th Century. Classical Chinese is no longer the predominant form of written Chinese, though it continues to become a a portion of high school curricula & is hence understandable to occasionally degree to numbers of Chinese humans. More than Standard Mandarin, spoken variants come normally non written; a exception is Standard Cantonese, which is sometimes written when Written Cantonese in informal contexts.

Culture
Independent article: Culture of China Religion
Independent articles: Religion in China

A major religions of China come: Taoism - exact numbers unknown Buddhism - exact numbers unknown [about 8%] Christianity - 2 to 4% (this is a American total, a Chinese official total is lot little than 1%) Islam - 1% to 2%

When a Humans's Republic of China is officially atheist it does allow religion under strict superintendence. Historically, Taoism & Buddhism has been a dominant religion of Chinese societies, & continues to exist as and then around Chinese societies outside of directly PRC control.

Within recent years, Falun Gong, a spiritual practice drawing upon Buddhism and Taoism, has attracted great contention when the food and drug administration of the Population's Republic of China labeled it an evil cult and began an attempt to eradicate it. the Falun Gong itself denies that these are the cult or even a religion. A Falun Gong says that it has approximately 70-100 million followers, which occurs as bit higher than estimates by outside groups, though accurate figures come unknown. It regularly protest against their suppression, two domestically & internationally.

View likewise: Confucianism Catholicism in China Protestantism in China Chinese folk religion Way of former Heaven Sects

Arts, scholarship, and literature
Chinese literature has a long & prolific continuous history, around a share because of the development of printmaking during the Song dynasty. Prior to that, manuscripts of the Classics & religious texts (primarily Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist) were manually written by ink brush (previously scratching husks) & distributed. Academies of scholars sponsored per empire were formed to comment within these works in each printed & written form. Members of royalty ofttimes participated within these discussions. Tens of hundreds to thousands of ancient written documents come however extant & thomas more, from either oracle bones to Qing edicts, are found daily, which experienced been formally ground higher for utilize within Chinese medicine.

For centuries, chance for economic & social advancement within China can be provided by high performance on the imperial examinations. This led to the meritocracy, though in practice this wwhen imaginable just among people world health organization were non female or even as swell unfortunate to afford line 1 text preparation, as doing well however mandatory tutelage. Even so it was a formulas distinct from either the European rules of blood nobility. Majestic examinations compulsory applier to write essays & demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Victims world health organization passed a greatest level of the examination became elect scholar-officials called jinshi, the extremely prestigious socio-economic position.

Chinese philosophers, writers, & poets use at times been, largely, extremely respected, & played a key role inside preserving & promoting the culture of the empire. Occasionally classicist, nonetheless, were noted for their daring depictions of populates of the folk, typically to the displeasure of authorities. (Look at List of Chinese authors, and List of Chinese language poets).

A Chinese develop created many musical instruments, such as a zheng, xiao, and erhu, that have spread throughout East and Southeast Asia, and especially areas under its influence. A sheng is the basis for several American free-reed instruments.

Chinese characters have had many variants & styles throughout a Chinese history, & were "simplified" in the mid-20th century on mainland China. Calligraphy is a major art-form in China, above that of painting and music. Because of its association using elect scholar-official bosses, it later became commercialised, in which works by illustrious creative person became prized possessions.

A nifty variation & beauty in a Chinese landscape is typically the inspiration for nifty works of Chinese art. Watch Chinese painting for more details.

Calligraphy, sushi, and bonsai are all millennia-old art that late spread to Japan and Korea.

Science and technology
Independent article: Science and technology in China

Within addition to the ethnical innovations mentioned above, technical inventions from either China include: Compass Prevent Printmaking / Printing Technology Paper Asian abacus Gunpowder Crossbow Stirrup Lacquer Rudder Seismograph Silk Porcelain Paper money A Glider A Hot air balloon Fireworks

More areas of technical learn: A independent applications of mathematics in traditional China were architecture and geography. Pi (π) was calculated by 5th century mathematician Zu Chongzhi to the seventh digit. A decimal system wwhen used around China when early as Fourteen Century BC. "Pascal's" Triangle was discovered by mathematician Liu Ju-Hsieh, long before Pascal was born. Studies inside biology have been extensive, and historic records come consulted possibly now, like pharmacopoeias of medicinal plants. Traditional medicine and surgery were highly advanced at various points withwithin history, & in a bit of fields come however seen when innovative. It prove my point to play a growing role in the international medical community, & stand achieved recognition across the survive pack decades in the West when alternative and complementary therapies. An lesson is acupuncture, although it is somewhat controversial around a few quarters. Nevertheless, autopsy was unacceptable, because of the common belief that the corpse should not exist as violated. Yet, there were many doctors who have increased a understanding of internal anatomy by violating this autopsy taboo. Alchemy was Taoist chemistry, very different from either modern chemistry. Chinese astrology and constellations were often utilized for divination Military innovations include a crossbow and the grid sight, crossbow stirrup, repeating crossbows, poison gas (smoke from burning dried mustard), tear gas made from pulverised lime, relief maps for battle planning, manned kites, fire lance, rockets, powder incendiaries, gunpowder grenades, proto-handguns, various gun-related ammunition types & a cannon.

Miscellaneous topics
Confucianism list of China-related topics Chinese dragons Chinese names Chinese language Chinese nationalism, cultural, historiographical, & political orientation, movements & beliefs that assert the idea of a cohesive, unified Chinese population & culture under state(s) that are primarily Chinese. environment of China Water system & Effluent problems around China (http://www.hkc22.com/chinawater.hypertext markup language) Nanotechnology & Nano-covergence within China (http://www.hkc22.com/nanochina.hypertext mark-up language) Cormorant fishing giant pandas imperialism in Asia military history of China overseas Chinese postage stamps and postal history of China price of tea in China Shanghai woman List of Chinese battles